Assessing Psychotrauma and Perspective of Emergency Responders in Balanga City, Bataan: A Foundation for Psychotrauma Management Program Development
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v4i1.6906Keywords:
Coping mechanisms, Emergency responders, Mixed-methods, Post-traumatic stress, PsychotraumaAbstract
Emergency responders often put themselves in a stressful situation or event that makes them at risks in developing psychotrauma. This study aimed to assess the extent of psychotrauma experienced by emergency responders in Balanga City, Bataan, Philippines and examines how symptoms of psychotrauma were related to demographics of the respondents. A convergent parallel mixed-methods design was employed with 44 emergency responders from the City Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Office (CDRRMO) and the Health Emergency Management Services (HEMS). The Impact of Event Scale-Revised was used to collect quantitative data, and semi-structured interviews were conducted to gather qualitative data. Descriptive statistics, Correlations analysis, and thematic analysis were conducted. Overall, the IES-R scores (M=20.023, SD=14.696) remained below the clinical threshold, however variation were noted across demographic group. Responders in the middle of their career who were 40-49 years old had the highest trauma levels (M=26.300, SD=15.225) with elevated intrusion (M=9.000) and avoidance (M=10.600) symptoms. Male responders demonstrated higher psychotrauma scores (M=21.226, SD=15.416) than females (M=17.154, SD=12.928). Qualitative analysis revealed five themes: Desensitization and Adaptation, Diverse coping Mechanism, Emotional Impact, Work-life Balance Boundaries, and Vicarious Trauma. While emergency responders generally experience low level of psychotrauma, mid-career professionals and males represent vulnerable subgroups requiring targeted intervention. The findings support the development of PAGHILOM (Psychotrauma Awareness, Growth, and Healing through Integrated Learning & Organizational Management to address identified needs.
References
Agbayani, B. E. M., Villaflor, P. I. A. T. M., Villaret, N. P. B., & Hechanova, Ma. R. M. (2018). The role of Filipino masculine ideology on the adaptive coping, psychological well-being and vicarious trauma of first responders. International Journal of Culture and Mental Health, 11(4), 753. https://doi.org/10.1080/17542863.2018.1561736
Alghamdi, A. A. (2022). The Psychological Challenges of Emergency Medical Service Providers During Disasters: A Mini-Review February 2022 [Review of The Psychological Challenges of Emergency Medical Service Providers During Disasters: A Mini-Review February 2022]. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 13. Frontiers Media. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2022.773100
Andérson, G. S., Ricciardelli, R., Tam-Seto, L., Gıwa, S., & Carleton, R. N. (2022). Self-Reported Coping Strategies for Managing Work-Related Stress among Public Safety Personnel. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(4), 2355. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19042355
Azizi, M., Ebadi, A., Ostadtaghizadeh, A., Tafti, A. D., Roudini, J., Barati, M., Khankeh, H. R., & Bidaki, R. (2021). Psychological Distress Model Among Iranian Pre-Hospital Personnel in Disasters: A Grounded Theory Study. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.689226
Bakirci, A. E., Şar, V., & Çetin, A. (2024). Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and co-occurring psychological issues among Turkish metropolitan firefighters Running head: Psychological issues in firefighters with PTSD. Research Square (Research Square). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-5013659/v1
Chen, Y., Tzeng, W., Chao, E., & Chiang, H. (2021). Development and Validation of an Instrument to Measure Work-Related Stress among Rescue Workers in Traumatic Mass-Casualty Disasters. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(16), 8340. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168340
Cho, I., Lee, H.-S., Song, K., Ahmed, O., Lee, D., Kim, J., Cho, E., Jang, S., Kim, J., & Chung, S. (2023). Assessing Stress and Anxiety in Firefighters During the Coronavirus Disease-2019 Pandemic: A Comparative Adaptation of the Stress and Anxiety in the Viral Epidemic–9 Items and Stress and Anxiety in the Viral Epidemics–6 Items Scales. Psychiatry Investigation, 20(11), 1095. https://doi.org/10.30773/pi.2023.0260
Çınaroğlu, M., Yılmazer, E., Alpuğan, Z., & Sayar, G. H. (2024). From Ruins to Recovery: Navigating Psychological Impacts of Turkey’s 2023 Earthquakes. Research Square (Research Square). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-4776194/v1
Cogan, N., Craig, A., Milligan, L., McCluskey, R., Burns, T., Ptak, W., Kirk, A., Graf, C., Goodman, J., & Kock, J. H. D. (2024). ‘I’ve got no PPE to protect my mind’: understanding the needs and experiences of first responders exposed to trauma in the workplace. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/20008066.2024.2395113
Creamer, M., Bell, R., & Failla, S. (2003). Psychometric properties of the Impact of Event Scale—Revised. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(12), 1489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2003.07.010
Cruz, Y. F. T. D. L., Licoben, A. S. A., Dagdagan, D. A., Camora, K. R. V., Bacasen, K. F., & Supsupin, R. N. B. (2025). THE COST OF SAVING LIVES: A GLIMPSE INTO THE PRESSURES AND COPING STRATEGIES AMONG EMERGENCY HEALTHCARE PROFESSIONALS IN LA TRINIDAD, BENGUET. Cognizance Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies, 5(7), 814. https://doi.org/10.47760/cognizance.2025.v05i07.060
De Leon, C. V. (2025). The Influence of Workplace Stress and Psychological Safety on the Well-Being of Filipino Employees. American Journal of Human Psychology, 3(1), 107-112. https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.4179
Denk-Florea, C.-B., Gancz, B., Gomoiu, A., Ingram, M., Moreton, R., & Pollick, F. (2020). Understanding and supporting law enforcement professionals working with distressing material: Findings from a qualitative study. PLoS ONE, 15(11). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242808
Dewi, Y. A., Seftyono, C., Soeparno, K., & Pattiasina, L. (2023). Psychological Adjustment after the Cianjur Earthquake: Exploring the Efficacy of Psychosocial Support and Collaborative Leadership. E3S Web of Conferences, 447, 4002. https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202344704002
Díaz-Tamayo, A. M., Escobar-Morantes, J. R., & García-Perdomo, H. A. (2022). Coping Strategies for Exposure to Trauma Situations in First Responders: A Systematic Review [Review of Coping Strategies for Exposure to Trauma Situations in First Responders: A Systematic Review]. Prehospital and Disaster Medicine, 37(6), 810. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/s1049023x22001479
Fonseca, S. M., Faria, S., Cunha, S., Silva, M., Ramos, M. J., Azevedo, G. O. de, Campos, R., Barbosa, A. R., & Queirós, C. (2021). Mental health patterns during COVID-19 in emergency medical services (EMS). International Journal of Emergency Services, 11(2), 193. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijes-08-2020-0052
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.44.3.513
Jakubowski, T., & Sitko-Dominik, M. (2021). The impact of the traditional male role norms on the posttraumatic stress disorder among Polish male firefighters. PLoS ONE, 16(10). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0259025
Johnston, S., Waite, P., Laing, J., Rashid, L., Wilkins, A. M., Hooper, C., Hindhaugh, E., & Wild, J. (2025). Why Do Emergency Medical Service Employees (Not) Seek Organizational Help for Mental Health Support?: A Systematic Review [Review of Why Do Emergency Medical Service Employees (Not) Seek Organizational Help for Mental Health Support?: A Systematic Review]. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 22(4), 629. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph22040629
Joseph, A. (2025). The Power of Communication and Listening in Healing: Beyond Medication in Clinical Practice. American Journal of Human Psychology, 3(1), 190-197. https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhp.v3i1.5733
K.R, P., & Sasikumar, S. (2021). Application of Colaizzi’s Method of Data Analysis in Phenomenological Research. Medico-Legal Update, 21(2), 914. https://doi.org/10.37506/mlu.v21i2.2800
Kerai, S., Khan, U., Islam, S., Asad, N., Razzak, J., & Pasha, O. (2017). Post-traumatic stress disorder and its predictors in emergency medical service personnel: a cross-sectional study from Karachi, Pakistan. BMC Emergency Medicine, 17(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-017-0140-7
Kyron, M. J., Rees, C. S., Lawrence, D., Carleton, R. N., & McEvoy, P. M. (2020). Prospective risk and protective factors for psychopathology and wellbeing in civilian emergency services personnel: a systematic review [Review of Prospective risk and protective factors for psychopathology and wellbeing in civilian emergency services personnel: a systematic review]. Journal of Affective Disorders, 281, 517. Elsevier BV. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.12.021
Lawn, S., Roberts, L., Willis, E., Couzner, L., Mohammadi, L., & Goble, E. (2020). The effects of emergency medical service work on the psychological, physical, and social well-being of ambulance personnel: a systematic review of qualitative research [Review of The effects of emergency medical service work on the psychological, physical, and social well-being of ambulance personnel: a systematic review of qualitative research]. BMC Psychiatry, 20(1). BioMed Central. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12888-020-02752-4
Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1987). Transactional theory and research on emotions and coping. European Journal of Personality, 1(3), 141. https://doi.org/10.1002/per.2410010304
Loef, J., Vloet, L., Vierhoven, P.-H., Schans, L. van der, Neyman-Lubbers, Y., Winter, C. de V., & Ebben, R. H. A. (2021). Starting ambulance care professionals and critical incidents: a qualitative study on experiences, consequences and coping strategies. BMC Emergency Medicine, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12873-021-00500-9
Martínez-Caballero, C. M., Matellán-Hernández, M. P., Polo-Portes, C. E., Reques-Marugán, A. M., Soto-Cámara, R., García, R. M. C., Thuissard, I. J., & Pascual, S. N. (2023). Exploring Disparities in Self-Reported Mental Health Symptoms Across Professional Categories in Spain’s Emergency Medical Services: A Nationwide Cross-Sectional Study. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 17. https://doi.org/10.1017/dmp.2023.171
Miethe, S., Wigger, J., Wartemann, A., Fuchs, F. O., & Trautmann, S. (2023). Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and its Association with Rumination, Thought Suppression and Experiential Avoidance: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [Review of Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms and its Association with Rumination, Thought Suppression and Experiential Avoidance: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis]. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 45(2), 480. Springer Science+Business Media. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-023-10022-2
Nagamine, M., Giltay, E. J., Shigemura, J., Wee, N. J. van der, Yamamoto, T., Takahashi, Y., Saito, T., Tanichi, M., Koga, M., Toda, H., Shimizu, K., Yoshino, A., & Vermetten, E. (2020). Assessment of Factors Associated With Long-term Posttraumatic Stress Symptoms Among 56 388 First Responders After the 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake. JAMA Network Open, 3(9). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.18339
Di Nota, P. M., Kasurak, E., Bahji, A., Groll, D., & Anderson, G. S. (2021). Coping among public safety personnel: A systematic review and meta–analysis. Stress and Health, 37(4), 613-630. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3039
O’Toole, M., Mulhall, C., & Eppich, W. (2022). Breaking down barriers to help-seeking: preparing first responders’ families for psychological first aid. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2022.2065430
Oliveira, J., Dias, J. A., Duarte, I. C., Caldeira, S., Marques, A. R., Rodrigues, V., Redondo, J., & Castelo-Branco, M. (2023). Mental health and post-traumatic stress disorder in firefighters: an integrated analysis from an action research study. Frontiers in Psychology, 14. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1259388
Rapisarda, F., Guay, S., Ouellet-Morin, I., Bond, S., & Geoffrion, S. (2024). Longitudinal assessment of psychological distress and its determinants in a sample of firefighters based in Montreal, Canada. Frontiers in Psychology, 15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1303063
Richins, M. T., Gauntlett, L., Tehrani, N., Hesketh, I., Weston, D., Carter, H., & Amlôt, R. (2020). Early Post-trauma Interventions in Organizations: A Scoping Review. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 515559. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01176
Rowe, C., Ceschi, G., & Boudoukha, A. H. (2022). Trauma exposure and mental health prevalence among first aiders. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 824549. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.824549
Shalabi, K. M., Alshraif, Z. A., Ismail, R. I., & Almubarak, K. (2022). Secondary traumatic stress disorder among healthcare professionals working in high morbidity departments in Saudi Arabia: A cross-sectional survey. Research Square (Research Square). https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2340764/v1
Shorer, S., Weinberg, M., Cohen, L., Marom, D., & Cohen, M. (2024). Emotional processing is not enough: relations among resilience, emotional approach coping, and posttraumatic stress symptoms among combat veterans. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1354669. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1354669
Siwinski, L. and Blankenship, P. (2024) Dissociating First Responder Trauma: Examining Patterns of Self-Reported Trauma Exposures in Single-Role Firefighters and Paramedics. Psychology, 15, 984-998. doi: 10.4236/psych.2024.156059.
Sousa, B., Mendes, G., Gonçalves, T., Oliveira, C., Figueiredo, M. J., Costa, P., & Maia, Â. (2023). Bringing a Uniform Home: a Qualitative Study on Police Officer’s Work-Family Balance Perspective! Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 38(4), 1025–1043. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11896-023-09619-w
Tad-Awan, F. P. F., Arceo, F. J. L., Chelnag, C. C., Supiping, D. S., Alawas, J. L. E., Antipuesto, D. L., Banes, A. D., Baruzo, A. M., Gale, J. A., Legasi, D. L., Navarro, A. A., Pumaras, D. G. C., & Aquino, A. F. D. (2024). Navigating Mental Health crises: Evaluating the Philippine National Police Crisis Intervention Strategies. International Journal of Research and Scientific Innovation, XI(V), 230–238. https://doi.org/10.51244/ijrsi.2024.1105016
Tedeschi, R. G., Park, C. L., & Calhoun, L. G. (1998). Posttraumatic Growth. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781410603401
Tessier, M., Lamothe, J., & Geoffrion, S. (2022). Psychological First Aid Intervention after Exposure to a Traumatic Event at Work among Emergency Medical Services Workers. Annals of Work Exposures and Health, 66(7), 946–959. https://doi.org/10.1093/annweh/wxac013
Thompson, J., & Drew, J. M. (2020). Warr;or21: A 21-Day Program to Enhance First Responder Resilience and Mental Health. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 2078. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02078
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Raymond E. Huevos, Jayvie Villazor, Juliet R. Masangcap, Monina C. Montaniel
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
