The Black Queer Experience Within Abrahamic Religion
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.54536/ajahs.v3i4.2949Keywords:
Black, Christianity, Islām, Identity, Intersectionality, Judaism, Religious Studies, Social Racism, Social, Queer, Identity, Lgbtqia+Abstract
This paper uses a sociological perspective to examine recent religious activism for reformist narratives about racism, sexism, dualism of gender, and prejudice against transgender in the United States as signs of identity politics. Analytically, it explores how identities like race, age, class, religion, gender, and sexuality work within religious discourses, specifically regarding racism, sexism, homophobia, transphobia, and misogyny. This question leads to a consideration of America’s Original Sin, which presents the interdependency of power structures and dominance with the suppression of vindictive minorities, especially the black queer. This work aims to explore various forms of oppression intertwined in religious structures so that this study will help expose the complexity of systemic prejudice and its effects on minority populations. They emphasize the need for more discussion and representation of these topics in religious spheres and activism, calling for their recognition, acceptance, and equity. In this regard, this study seeks the following objectives: The study aims to contribute to the thematic understanding of identity, power, and oppression within contemporary religious contexts in America.
Downloads
References
Abay, K., & Wilbekin, E. (2022, October 4). On being Black, gay, and Jewish—and finding radical self-love. Vogue. https://www.vogue.com
Abdul-Samad, L. (2017, February 5). Arabs, the N-word and the A-word are the same. Muslim Girl. https://www.muslimgirl.com
Abrams, A. C. (2014a). Introduction: Sunday morning: Anthropology of a church. In God and blackness: Race, gender, and identity in a middle-class Afrocentric church (pp. 1–24). New York: NYU Press.
Abrams, A. C. (2014b). God and blackness: Race, gender, and identity in a middle-class Afrocentric church. New York: NYU Press.
Abulafia, A. S. (2019, September 23). The Abrahamic religions. British Library. https://www.bl.uk/sacred-texts/articles/the-abrahamic-religions
Abulhawa, S. (2013, July 7). Confronting anti-Black racism in the Arab world: The Arab slave trade is a fact of history, and anti-Black racism in the region is something that must be addressed. Al Jazeera America. https://www.aljazeera.com
Adamu, F. L. (1999). A double-edged sword: Challenging women’s oppression within Muslim society in northern Nigeria. Gender & Development, 7(1), 56–61. https://doi.org/10.1080/741923166
Advisory Committee on LGBTQ Issues and Minority Affairs. (2021, June 24). Black & LGBTQ+: At the intersection of race, sexual orientation & identity. American Medical Association. https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/population-care/black-lgbtq-intersection-race-sexual-orientation-identity
Afsaruddin, A. (2020, July 6). Islam’s anti-racist message from the 7th century still resonates today. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com
Afsaruddin, A. (2022). Allah. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com
Afsaruddin, A. (2022). Jihad. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com
Al-Asfahānī, A. N. (1932). Hilyat al-awliya wa tabaqat al-asfiya (Vol. 1, p. 369). Cairo.
Al-Dayel, N., Anfinson, A., & Anfinson, G. (2022). Not yet dead: The establishment and regulation of slavery by the Islamic State. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 45(11), 929–952. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2021.1898423
Alexander, J. A. (2001). Islam, archaeology and slavery in Africa. World Archaeology, 33(1), 44–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/00438240120041725
Ali, K. (2004, February 2). Islam and slavery. Brandeis University. https://www.brandeis.edu/projects/fse/muslim/slavery.html
Al-Khamri, H. (2018, July 1). The outrageous racism that ‘graced’ Arab TV screens in Ramadan: Like in the past, this year’s Ramadan series featured scenes of vulgar racism against Afro/Black Arabs. Al Jazeera. https://www.aljazeera.com
Allah. (2005). In The new dictionary of cultural literacy. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin Harcourt Publishing.
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). (2008). Discrimination against Muslim women - Fact sheet. Washington: Women’s Rights Project.
American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU). (2023). At liberty: The movement to erase Black history and culture [Podcast episode]. In The Movement to Erase Black History and Culture. https://www.aclu.org/podcast/the-movement-to-erase-black-history-culture-and-joy
Amnesty International. (2023, March 10). Afghanistan: Alleged rape by Taliban members must be investigated and prosecuted immediately. Amnesty International News. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2023/03/afghanistan-alleged-rape-by-taliban-members-must-be-investigated-and-prosecuted-immediately/
Amon, A. (2019, January 11). African Muslims in early America: Religion, literacy and liberty. National Museum of African American History and Culture. https://nmaahc.si.edu
An-Na’im, A. A. (2006). The contingent role of Islam. In African constitutionalism and the role of Islam (pp. 99–131). Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Arkin, D. (2020, May 16). Fox News’ Tucker Carlson under fresh scrutiny after Buffalo mass shooting: The incendiary cable news host has drawn criticism for promoting the “great replacement” theory—Ideas apparently espoused by the suspect in the Buffalo shooting. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/fox-news-tucker-carlson-fresh-scrutiny-buffalo-mass-shooting-rcna29084
Armstrong, K. (2007). Muhammad: A prophet for our time. New York: HarperCollins.
Austin, A. D. (2012). African Muslims in antebellum America: Transatlantic stories and spiritual struggles (Reprint ed.). London: Routledge. (Original work published 1997)
Baderin, M. A. (2013). Islamic law and international protection of minority rights. In M.-L. Frick & A. Müller (Eds.), Islam and international law: Engaging self-centrism from a plurality of perspectives (pp. 321–344). Leiden: Brill.
Bagby, I. A., Perl, P. M., & Frochle, B. T. (2001). The mosque in America, a national portrait: A report from the mosque study project. Washington: Council on American-Islamic Relations (CAIR).
Bãlan, S. (2010). M. Foucault’s view in power relations. Cogito, 2(2), 55–61.
Balan, S. (2010). M. Foucault’s view on power relations. Cogito: Multidisciplinary Res. J., 2, 193.
Baldwin, J. (1998). On being white ... And other lies. In D. R. Roediger (Ed.), Black on white: Black writers on what it means to be white (pp. 178–180). New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group.
Baquet, D., & Corbett, P. (2020, June 30). Uppercasing ‘Black’: The Times will start using uppercase “Black” to describe people and cultures of African origin, both in the U.S. and elsewhere. New York Times. https://www.nytco.com/press/uppercasing-black/
Baragona, J. (2022, October 20). ADL condemns Tucker for accusing Black MSNBC host of fomenting ‘race war’: The Fox News star claimed that MSNBC was intentionally inciting white genocide via its Black hosts, comparing it to the Rwandan civil war. Daily Beast. https://www.thedailybeast.com
Batchelor-Hunt, N. (2021, December 27). ‘I’m Jewish and Black—Where do I fit in?’. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-59748260
BBC News. (2009, September 7). Slavery in Islam. BBC News. https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml
BBC News. (2020, July 26). Viewpoint from Sudan—Where Black people are called slaves: In our series of letters from African journalists, Zeinab Mohammed Salih writes about the horrific racial abuse Black people experience in Sudan. BBC News. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-53147864
Benor, S. B. (2016). Black and Jewish: Language and multiple strategies for self-presentation. American Jewish History, 100(1), 51–71. https://doi.org/10.1353/ajh.2016.0000
Bernstein, M. (2005). Identity politics. Annual Review of Sociology, 31, 47–74. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.29.010202.100054
Berthold, D. (2010). Tidy whiteness: A genealogy of race, purity, and hygiene. Ethics and the Environment, 15(1), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.2979/ETE.2010.15.1.1
Blum, E. J., & Harvey, P. (2012). The color of Christ: The Son of God and the saga of race in America. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
BME. (2020). In Macmillan English Dictionary. London: Macmillan Education Ltd.
Bonilla-Silva, E. (2001). White supremacy and racism in the post-civil rights era. Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Bonilla-Silva, E., & Dietrich, D. (2011). The sweet enchantment of color-blind racism in Obamerica. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 634, 190–206. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716210389702
Branson-Potts, H. (2022, November 28). After Colorado Springs shooting, LGBTQ people
Burch, A. D. S. (2022, October 17). Nearly ‘erased by history’: African Americans search for lost graves. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/15/us/nearly-erased-by-history-african-americans-search-for-lost-graves.html
Burke, M. (2022, June 1). Suspect in racist Buffalo mass shooting indicted on murder, terrorism and hate crime charges. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/suspect-racist-buffalo-mass-shooting-indicted-terrorism-murder-charges-rcna31507
Burke, M. (2022, June 9). Texas pastor says gay people should be ‘shot in the back of the head’ in shocking sermon. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/nbc-out/out-news/texas-pastor-says-gay-people-shot-back-head-shocking-sermon-rcna32748
Cain, M. C. (2008). The art and politics of looking white: Beauty practice among white women in antebellum America. Winterthur Portfolio, 42(1), 27-50.
Callimachi, R. (2015, August 13). ISIS enshrines a theology that justifies rape. Orange County Register. https://www.ocregister.com/2015/08/13/isis-enshrines-a-theology-that-justifies-rape
Camara Phyllis, J. (2002). Confronting institutionalized racism. Phylon, 50(1/2), 7-22.
Chehata, H. (2012). Israel: Promised land for Jews … as long as they’re not Black? Race & Class, 53(4), 67-77.
Chen, M. (2016, June 16). Targeting queer people of color in the name of ‘national security’. The Nation.
Clarence-Smith, W. G. (2006). Tribute, purchase, and adoption. In Islam and the Abolition of Slavery (p. 34). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Coaston, J. (2019, May 28). The intersectionality wars. Vox.
Collins, S. (2020, July 21). Trump once flirted with white nationalism. Now it’s a centerpiece of his White House. Vox.
Contributors., W., & . ((2024, May 18).). Racialization. . Wikipedia; Wikimedia Foundation. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racialization#:~:text=Racialization%20or%20ethnicization%20is%20a,society’s%20understanding%20of%20human%20behavior.
Cotto, J. (2022, August 29). Racial segregation still prevalent in church communities. WTTW News. https://news.wttw.com/2022/08/29/racial-segregation-still-prevalent-church-communities
Cox, C. (2022, November 21). Gisele Fetterman, wife of Pennsylvania Sen.-elect John Fetterman, blasts right-wing ‘hate’ of her and other ‘strong women’. NBC News. https://www.cnbc.com/2022/11/21/wife-of-john-fetterman-blasts-fox-news-conservative-hate.html
Crookston, P. (2017, February 15). Professor uses lecture to defend Islamic slavery. National Review.
Culture and the law in Islam. (1995). Gender & Development, 3(1), 45-46.
Davis, D. B. (1994, December 22). The slave trade and the Jews. The New York Review.
Davis, R. C. (2009). Holy war and human bondage: Tales of Christian-Muslim slavery in the early-modern Mediterranean. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
Definify. (2022). خَطِيئةَ. In Definition.
DiAngelo, R. (2019). How does race shape the lives of white people? In White Fragility: Why it’s so hard for white people to talk about racism (p. 63). Boston: Beacon Press.
Dictionary.com. (2018). Speak truth to power. In Dictionary.com. Oakland: Dictionary.com.
Dictionary.com. (2022). DEI. In Dictionary.com. Oakland: Dictionary.com.
Diouf, S. A. (1998). Servants of Allah: African Muslims enslaved in the Americas. New York: New York University Press.
Durkin, E. (2022, March 26). New York Asian hate crime spike puts pressure on new mayor. Politico.
Elgenaidi, M. (2020). Does the Muslim American community have a problem with intra-Muslim racism? https://ing.org/muslim-american-community-problem-intra-muslim-racism
Eltis, D., & Tullos, A. (2013). Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database (Emory University, Ed.). National Endowment for the Humanities, W.E. B. DuBois Institute for Afro-American Research at Harvard.
Faith, HRC Religion. (2015). Religion and coming out issues for African Americans. Washington: Human Rights Campaign Foundation.
Ferber, A. L., & Samuels, D. R. (2022). Social identities and systems of oppression. Smithsonian, National Museum of African American History & Culture. https://socwomen.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/03/fact_3-2010-oppression.pdf
Fisher, H. J., & Fisher, A. G. B. (2001). Foreword. In Slavery in the history of Muslim Black Africa (pp. xvii-xxi). New York: NYU Press.
Fitzsimons, T. (2020, June 19). What does it mean to be Black and queer in America today? NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/feature/nbc-out/what-does-it-mean-be-black-queer-america-today-n1231500
Fletcher, J. K. (1999). Disappearing acts: Gender, power, and relational practice at work. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Foucault, M. (2012). The history of sexuality: An introduction. New York: Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. (Original work published 1980)
Foundation, HRC. (2022). Stances of faiths on LGBTQ issues: Islam - Sunni and Shi’a. HRC. https://www.hrc.org/resources/stances-of-faiths-on-lgbt-issues-islam
Freamon, B. K. (1998). Slavery, freedom, and the doctrine of consensus in Islamic jurisprudence. Harvard Human Rights Journal, 11(1).
Freamon, B. K. (2013). Straight, no chaser: Slavery, abolition, and modern Islamic thought. In R. Harms, B. Freamon, & D. W. Blight (Eds.), Indian Ocean slavery in the age of abolition (pp. 61-80). Yale University Press.
Freamon, B. K. (2019). Slavery and slave trading in early Islam. In Possessed by the right hand: The problem of slavery in Islamic law and Muslim cultures (p. 96). Leiden: Brill.
Freamon, B. K. (2019). The emergence of slavery and slave travels. In Possessed by the right hand: The problem of slavery in Islamic law and Muslim cultures (p. 489). Leiden: Brill.
Freund, M. (2014, October 27). Political correctness and Islam. Jerusalem Post. https://www.jpost.com/opinion/political-correctness-and-islam-379994
Garcia, S. E. (2020, June 17). Where did BIPOC come from? The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/article/what-is-bipoc.html
Gayle, C. (2022). We refuse to forget: A true story of Black Creeks, American identity, and power. New York: Riverhead Books.
Geertz, C. (1993). Religion as a cultural system. In The interpretation of cultures: Selected essays (pp. 87-125). Waukegan, IL: Fontana Press.
Ghazal, A. (2022, August 16). Slavery in Mauritania: The long road to real emancipation. Arab Center Washington DC (ACW).
Goldenberg, D. M. (2017). The dual curse of slavery and Black skin. In D. C. Jr., C. Helmer, T. Römer, C. L. Seow, B. D. Walfish, & E. Ziolkowski (Eds.), Black and slave: The origins and history of the curse of Ham (pp. 87-104). Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmbH.
Gordon, M. (1989). Introduction to the American edition. In Slavery in the Arab world (pp. x-xii). New York: New Amsterdam.
Gordon, M. S., & Hain, K. A. (Eds.). (2017). Concubines and courtesans: Women and slavery in Islamic history. New York: Oxford University Press.
Gordon-Reed, A. (1997). Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American controversy. Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press.
Green, E. L. (2023, January 1). Strife in the schools: Education Dept. logs record number of discrimination complaints: Some of the highest-profile complaints show how America’s culture wars are affecting the nation’s children. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2023/01/01/us/politics/education-discrimination.html
Gregorius, A. (2016, April 10). The Black people ‘erased from history’. BBC News Mexico. https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-35981727
Gross, M. (2008). To be Christian and homosexual: From shame to identity-based claims. Nova Religio. The Journal of Alternative and Emergent Religions, 11(4), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1525/nr.2008.11.4.77
Guillaume, A. (2007). Attack on B. Qurayza. In The life of Muhammad: A translation of Ishaq’s Sirat rasul Allah (pp. 463-466). Oxford University Press.
Hackett, C., & McClendon, D. (2017, April 5). Christians remain world’s largest religious group, but they are declining in Europe. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2017/04/05/christians-remain-worlds-largest-religious-group-but-they-are-declining-in-europe/
Hagiwara, N., Kashy, D. A., & Cesario, J. (2012). The independent effects of skin tone and facial features on Whites’ affective reactions to Blacks. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 48(4), 892-898. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2012.02.001
Hamel, C. E. (2012). The notion of slavery and the justification of concubinage as an institution of slavery in Islam. In C. E. Hamel (Ed.), Black Morocco: A history of slavery, race, and Islam (pp. 17-59). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139088487
Hammer, J. (2018). Islam and race in American history. In K. G. Lum & P. Harvey (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of religion and race in American history (p. 220). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190221171.013.17
Ḥanbal, A. ibn. (2010). Thulaathiyyaat Musnad Aḥmad ibn Ḥanbal: Reports of Imaam Aḥmad that have only three narrators between him and the Prophet (Vol. 35, Hadith 21928, p. 256). Darussalam.
Hanson, K., O’Dwyer, E., & Lyons, E. (2021). The national divide: A social representations approach to US political identity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 51(4-5), 833-846. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.2757
Hanson, K., O’Dwyer, E., & Lyons, E. (2021). The national divide: A social representations approach to US political identity. European Journal of Social Psychology, 51(4-5), 833-846.
Hassan, R. (1995). Women in Islam: Qur’anic ideals versus Muslim realities. Plan Parent Chall, (2), 5-9.
Hezser, C. (2011). Slavery and the Jews. In D. Eltis, K. Bradley, S. L. Engerman, P. Cartledge, C. Perry, S. Drescher, & D. Richardson (Eds.), The Cambridge world history of slavery: Volume 1, The ancient Mediterranean world (pp. 438-455). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521840668.022
Horne, G. (1995). Representing rebellion. In Fire this time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (p. 327). University of Virginia Press.
Houtman, J., Naegle, W., & Long, M. G. (2014). Bayard Rustin: The invisible activist. QuakerPress Publishing.
Howard, T. A. (2013). Introduction. In T. A. Howard (Ed.), Imago Dei: Human dignity in ecumenical perspective (p. 2). Catholic University of America Press.
Huddy, L. (2015). Group identity and political cohesion. Emerging trends in the social and behavioral sciences: An interdisciplinary, searchable, and linkable resource, 1-14.
Huddy, L. (2015). Group identity and political cohesion. In Emerging trends in the social and behavioral sciences (pp. 1-14). https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118900772.etrds0145
Human Rights Campaign Foundation, HRC Religion and Faith Program. (2015). Coming home to Catholicism and to self. Human Rights Campaign Foundation.
Issa, N. (2016, March 17). Tunisia’s dirty secret: Five years after the revolution, Tunisia’s Black minority has yet to experience the freedoms enjoyed by other citizens. Al Jazeera America. https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2016/3/17/tunisias-dirty-secret
Jardim, F. (2013). A brief genealogy of governmentality studies: the Foucault effect and its developments. An interview with Colin Gordon. Educação e pesquisa, 39, 1067-1087.
Lewis, B., & Hámori, A. P. (Eds.). (2002). The African diaspora in the Mediterranean lands of Islam. Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers.
LGBTQ+:, B. ( (2024, May 20).). At the intersection of race, sexual orientation & identity. American Medical Association. https://www.ama-assn.org/delivering-care/population-care/black-lgbtq-intersection-race-sexual-orientation-identity
López, I. F. H. (2000). Institutional racism: Judicial conduct and a new theory of racial discrimination. The Yale Law Journal, 109(8), 1717-1884. https://doi.org/10.2307/797617
Lovejoy, P. E. (2012). The export trade in slaves (1600-1800). In Transformations in slavery: A history of slavery in Africa (African studies, pp. 45-65). Cambridge University Press.
Lydon, G. (2005). Slavery, exchange, and Islamic law: A glimpse from the archives of Mali and Mauritania. African Economic History, 33, 117-148.
Mahowald, L., Gruberg, S., & Halpin, J. (2020, October). The state of the LGBTQ community in 2020. The Center for American Progress. https://www.americanprogress.org/article/state-lgbtq-community2020/#Ca=10
Manning, P. (1990). The political economy of slavery in Africa. In D. Anderson & C. Brown (Eds.), Slavery and African life: Occidental, Oriental, and African slave trades (pp. 8-26). Cambridge University Press.
Manning, P. (1990). Why Africans? The rise of the slave trade to 1700. In D. Anderson & C. Brown (Eds.), Slavery and African life: Occidental, Oriental, and African slave trades (pp. 27-37). Cambridge University Press.
Maril, R. (2022, November 20). Op-Ed: Club Q shooting in Colorado Springs follows six brutal years of Republican anti-LGBTQ rhetoric. Los Angeles Times. https://www.latimes.com/opinion/story/2022-11-20/colorado-springs-club-q-shooting-republican-anti-gay-politics
Marmon, S. E., Marmon, J., Ayalon, D., & Hunwick, J. (1999). Slavery in the Islamic Middle East. Markus Wiener.
Massingale, B. N., & Gregory, W. (2021). Speaking the truth: The Black Catholic intellectual vocation. In D. J. Endres (Ed.), Black Catholic studies reader (pp. 1-18). Catholic University of America Press.
McFarlan, E. (2020, June 25). How an iconic painting of Jesus as a white man was distributed around the world. Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/religion/2020/06/25/how-an-iconic-painting-jesus-white-man-was-distributed-around-world/
Meide, W. van der. (2001, August 24). The intersection of sexual orientation and race: Considering the experiences of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered people of color. Egale Canada.
Messinger, L. (2009). Creating LGBTQ-friendly campuses. Academe, 95(5), 39-42.
Metz, S., & Groves, S. (2022, November 26). Colorado Springs reckons with past after gay club shooting. Associated Press. https://apnews.com/article/religion-crime-shootings-colorado-denver-77d6406f82f4fa3afdfd1b2519b4e8a0
Meyers, L. (2021, May 26). Listening to voices of color in the LGBTQ+ community. Counseling Today.
Miers, S. (2004). Slavery: A question of definition. In G. Campbell (Ed.), Structure of slavery in Indian Ocean Africa and Asia (p. 4). Taylor & Francis.
Mills, S. (2003). Power and institutions. In Michel Foucault (Routledge critical thinkers, p. 35). Routledge.
Mills, S. (2003). Power and institutions. Michel Foucault, 33-52.
Mitchell, J. (2023, February 4). On this day in 1913. . https://mississippitoday.org/2023/02/04/on-this-day-1913-rosa-parks/
Mohamed, B., & Diamant, J. (2019, January 17). Black Muslims account for a fifth of all U.S. Muslims, and about half are converts to Islam. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2019/01/17/black-muslims-account-for-a-fifth-of-all-u-s-muslims-and-about-half-are-converts-to-islam/
Mohamed, B., Cox, K., Diamant, J., & Gecewicz, C. (2021, February 16). Faith among Black Americans. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/wp-content/uploads/sites/7/2021/02/PF_02.16.21_Black.religion.report.pdf
Mohamed, J. (2021). The role of rape in the Yazidi genocide. Liberated Arts: A Journal for Undergraduate Research, 8(1), 1-13.
Morgan, T. (2021). Why MLK’s right-hand man, Bayard Rustin, was nearly written out of history. A&E Television Networks.
Na’im, A. A. (2019). Toward an Islamic reformation: Civil liberties, human rights, and international law (Foreword by J. Voll). Syracuse University Press.
National Museum of African American History & Culture (NMAAHC). (2022). Social identities and systems of oppression. Talking About Race. https://nmaahc.si.edu/learn/talking-about-race/topics/social-identities-and-systems-oppression
Noble, C. E., & Renn, K. A. (2021). Whiteness and the rainbow: White LGBTQ+ college students’ racial identity development. Journal Committed to Social Change on Race and Ethnicity (JCSCORE), 7(2), 104-135.
Novo, M. G. (2011). Islamic law and slavery in premodern West Africa. Entremons: UPF Journal of World History, 2, 1-20.
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). (2022). About LGBTI people and human rights: OHCHR and the human rights of LGBTI people. United Nations.
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) & Equal Rights Trust (ERT). (2023). Protecting minority rights: A practical guide to developing comprehensive anti-discrimination legislation. United Nations.
Omaar, R., Carver, R., de Waal, A., Fleischman, J., Sorensen, K., Graham, J., & Penglase, B. (1990, June 29). Slavery: Alive and well, 10 years after it was last abolished. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/reports/pdfs/m/mauritan/mauritan906.pdf
O’Neil, A. C. (1912). Sin. In K. Knight (Ed.), The Catholic encyclopedia. Robert Appleton Company.
Oswego. (2024). Social Identity. Oswego.edu. https://ww1.oswego.edu/diversity/day-3-social-identity#:~:text=Social%20identity%20refers%20to%20people’s,something%20we%20are%20born%20into
Pederson, E. (2019, May 31). Fox News defends Laura Ingraham for defending white supremacist. Deadline. https://deadline.com/2019/05/laura-ingraham-white-supramascist-defense-fox-news-channel-1202625279/
Pettigrew, E. (2020). Histories of race, slavery, and emancipation in the Middle East. Mediterranean Politics, 25(4), 528-536.
Pew Research Center. (2018). Muslims in America: Immigrants and those born in U.S. see life differently in many ways. Pew Research Center.
Postsecondary National Policy Institute. (2022). Factsheet: LGBTQ+ reported students in higher education. Postsecondary National Policy Institute. https://pnpi.org/lgbtq-students-in-higher-education/
Powers, D. S. (2011). The repudiation of the beloved of the messenger of God. In Muhammad is not the father of any of your men: The making of the last prophet (pp. 56-57). University of Pennsylvania Press.
Program, HRC Religion and Faith. (2015). Coming home to Islam and to self. Human Rights Campaign Foundation.
Puente, C. de la. (2013). Free fathers, slave mothers, and their children: A contribution to the study of family structures in Al-Andalus. Imago Temporis. Medium Aevum, 7, 27-44.
Queer. (2022). In Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1966).
Racism, Color-Blind. (2021). In Encyclopedia.com. Oxford University Press, Columbia University Press.
Rendell, J. (2003). Introduction: “Gender, Space.” In J. Rendell, B. Penner, & I. Borden (Eds.), Gender Space Architecture (p. 102). Routledge.
Rich, T. (2023). Issues in Jewish ethics: Homosexuality. In M. Bard (Ed.), Jewish Virtual Library. American–Israeli Cooperative Enterprise.
Rivers, C. J., & Gregory, W. (2021). Thank God we ain’t what we was: The state of the liturgy in the Black Catholic community. In D. J. Endres (Ed.), Black Catholic Studies Reader: History and Theology (pp. 133-140). Catholic University of America Press.
Rosenbaum, J. (2023). Tensions in Black-Jewish relations. In Living the Legacy (Unit 3, Lessons 1-3). Jewish Women’s Archive.
Russell, W. (2017). Islamic views on slavery. In Islam: A Threat to Civilization (2nd ed., pp. 168-186). First Edition Design.
Salvatore, A. (Ed.). (2018). The Wiley Blackwell history of Islam. Wiley Blackwell.
Schacht, J. (1982). An introduction to Islamic law. Clarendon Press.
Schwally, F. (1898). Lexikalische Studien. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft, 52, 132.
Segal, R. (1998). Title. Working Paper Series. Oxford.
Segal, R. (2001). Contrasts. In Islam’s Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora (pp. 3-12). Farrar, Straus and Giroux. (Original work published 2001).
Segal, R. (2001). The practice of slavery. In Islam’s Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora (pp. 35-65). Farrar, Straus and Giroux. (Original work published 2001).
Sewell, A. A. (2016). The racism-race reification process: A mesolevel political economic framework for understanding racial health disparities. Sociology of Race and Ethnicity, 2(4), 402-432.
Shabani, O. P. (2014). Politics of identity. In The Encyclopedia of Political Thought (pp. 2876-2880).
Shabani, O. P. (2014). Politics of Identity. The Encyclopedia of Political Thought, 2876-2880.
Shah, S. (2024). Queering the Abrahamic Scriptures. Queer Jews, Queer Muslims: Race, Religion, and Representation.
Shaheed, F. (1986). The cultural articulation of patriarchy: Legal systems, Islam, and women. South Asia Bull, 6(1), 38-44.
Shams, S. (2021, November 19). A jurisprudential reckoning: How conservatives use “colorblind” ideology to obstruct racial justice. Roosevelt Institute. https://rooseveltinstitute.org/2021/11/19/a-jurisprudential-reckoning-how-conservatives-use-colorblind-ideology-to-obstruct-racial-justice/
Shapiro, B. (2018). What is intersectionality? In Political Science, Identity Politics and Progressivism. PragerU.
Sikainga, A. A. (2011). The paradox of the female slave body in the Islamic legal system: The cases of Morocco and Sudan. Hawwa, 9(1-2), 215-233.
Silk, M. (2016, November). Did John Adams out Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings? Smithsonian Magazine.
Singh, S., & Durso, L. E. (2017). Widespread discrimination continues to shape LGBT people’s lives in both subtle and significant ways. The Center for American Progress.
Smith, M. (2022, December 7). Common good constitutionalism could influence judicial practice. Bloomberg Law.
Staff, The New Arab. (2020, June 8). Palestinian actress Maryam Abu Khaled slams Arab racism in viral video. The New Arab.
Study.com., S. c., & . (2024). Abrahamic Religions.Definition, Timeline & Origin. https://study.com/academy/lesson/abrahamic-religions-definition-timeline-origin.html
Sutter, J. D. (2012, March). Slavery’s last stronghold: Mauritania’s endless sea of sand dunes hides an open secret: An estimated 10% to 20% of the population lives in slavery. CNN Freedom Project: Ending Modern-Day Slavery. https://www.cnn.com/interactive/2012/03/world/mauritania.slaverys.last.stronghold/index.html
Tamkin, E. (2022). Foreign Jews. In Bad Jews: A History of American Jewish Politics and Identities (pp. 14-15). Hurst Publishers.
Tarigan, E., Fam, M., & Crary, D. (2022, December 6). Across vast Muslim world, LGBTQ people remain marginalized. Associated Press News. https://apnews.com/article/middle-east-africa-religion-europe-05020d7baa9f0d5f0b3088e80d0797e9
The Guardian. (2018, June 8). Modern-day slavery in focus: The unspeakable truth about slavery in Mauritania. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2018/jun/08/the-unspeakable-truth-about-slavery-in-mauritania
The Oxford History of Islam. (2000). J. L. Esposito (Ed.). Oxford University Press.
Thomas, S. S. (2022). What does the word “queer” actually mean? Experts explain its history. Cosmopolitan.
Urban, E. (2019). Gender and slavery in Islamic political thought. In L. K. Jenco, M. Idris, & M. C. Thomas (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Political Theory (pp. 281-306). Oxford University Press.
Vaid, M. (2022, January 7). Where the rainbow ends: American Muslims and LGBT activism. Muslim Matters.
Vermeule, A. (2020, March 31). Beyond originalism: The dominant conservative philosophy for interpreting the Constitution has served its purpose, and scholars ought to develop a more moral framework. The Atlantic.
Vermeule, A. (2022). Common good constitutionalism. Polity Press.
Vidino, L., & Meleagrou-Hitchens, A. (2022, September). Islamist homophobia in the West: From rhetoric to violence. Innovation National Counterterrorism, Technology and Education Center/Department of Homeland Security. George Washington University.
Ward, I. (2022, December 9). Critics call it theocratic and authoritarian. Young conservatives call it an exciting new legal theory. Politico.
Watt, W. M., Sinai, N., Duignan, B., Luebering, J. E., Cunningham, J. M., Parrott-Sheffer, C., Ray, M., Stefon, M., Tesch, N., & Zeidan, A. (2023). Muhammad: Prophet of Islam. In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Weatherford, A. (2017, March 7). The black body: What Get Out gets right about American culture and black bodies. New York Magazine.
Weltanschauung. (2022). In Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Encyclopædia Britannica. (Original work published 1966).
WGCU. (2022). Religion: Three religions, one God. WGBH Educational Foundation. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/globalconnections/mideast/themes/religion/index.html
Williams, B. (2020, June 26). Meet Abdul-Aliy Muhammad: A black queer Muslim HIV+ activist who has been fighting racism within LGBTQ+ spaces for years. Aids Foundation Chicago News.
Williams, M. T. (2011, December 27). Colorblind ideology is a form of racism: A colorblind approach allows us to deny uncomfortable cultural differences. Psychology Today.
Willis, J. R. (Ed.). (1985). Preface. In Slaves and Slavery in Africa: The Servile Estate (pp. vii–xi). Frank Cass & Co.
Winer, S. (2019, July 23). Jerusalem chief rabbi: Gay people cannot be religious, shouldn’t pretend to be. The Times of Israel. https://www.timesofisrael.com/jerusalem-chief-rabbi-gay-people-arent-religious-should-cast-off-observance/
Yacovone, D. (2022, September 19). How white supremacy became part of nation’s fabric (Excerpt from Teaching white supremacy: America’s democratic ordeal and the forging of our national identity by Donald Yacovone, Associate, Hutchins Center for African & African American Research). The Harvard Gazette. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2022/09/exploring-white-supremacys-role-in-forging-national-identity/
Yellin, D. (2022, June 29). LGBTQ Muslims are becoming more visible in America despite a history of being shunned. North Jersey Community Newspapers. https://www.northjersey.com/story/life/2022/06/29/lgbtq-muslims-visibility-history-shunned-islam-gay/7567695001/
Yosso, T. J., Parker, L., Solórzano, D. G., & Lynn, M. (2004). From Jim Crow to affirmative action and back again: A critical race discussion of racialized rationales and access to higher education. Review of Research in Education, 28(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X028001001
Younes, R., & Hasan, S. (2022, March 23). “Everyone wants me dead”: Killings, abductions, torture, and sexual violence against LGBT people by armed groups in Iraq. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/report/2022/03/23/everyone-wants-me-dead/killings-abductions-torture-and-sexual-violence-against
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2024 Rafi Rahman
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
