Perceived Costs-Benefits, and Barriers of Climate Adaptation among Smallholder Farmers in the Barind Tract, Bangladesh
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.54536/ajee.v5i1.6350Keywords:
Bangladesh, Barind Tract, Climate Adaptation, Perceived Costs-Benefits, Smallholder FarmerAbstract
Climate change adaptation refers to the process by which farmers adjust their agricultural practices to reduce climate-related risks and enhance resilience. In the Barind Tract, several studies have explored climate change adaptation and barriers. However, most of these studies focused on general adaptation strategies or structural/economic barriers and did not examine perceived costs-benefits of adaptation and how these perceptions interact with barriers when deciding whether to adopt specific practices. Addressing this gap, the present study investigates the most commonly adopted adaptation strategies and analyzes farmers’ evaluations of the associated costs-benefits alongside the barriers that hinder effective adaptation. Data were collected from 180 smallholder farmers across three upazilas using a multi-stage equal allocation sampling approach. A structured questionnaire captured socio-economic characteristics, adaptation strategies, perceived costs-benefits, and barriers. Descriptive statistics, chi-square test, Relative Importance Index (RII), and Weighted Average Index (WAI) were used for the analysis. The results show that irrigation (RII = 0.9593), tractor tillage (0.9389), row planting (0.8556), and improved seed varieties (0.8407) were the most widely adopted practices. Initial and ongoing costs were mainly within Tk 5001–10000 and Tk 2500–5000, and 74 percent of farmers reported that the benefits of adaptation outweighed the costs. The major barriers included resource scarcity (WAI = 4.35), limited availability of technology (4.29), and financial constraints (4.01). The study provides new empirical evidence on how perceived costs-benefits and barriers jointly shape adaptation decisions among smallholder farmers. Strengthening access to loans, agricultural inputs, technology, training, and rural infrastructure is essential for building climate resilience and promoting sustainable agriculture in the Barind Tract.
Downloads
References
Ahmed, M., Asim, M., Ahmad, S., & Aslam, M. (2023). Climate change, agricultural productivity, and food security. In Global agricultural production: Resilience to climate change (pp. 31-72). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-14973-3_2
Anita, W., Dominic, M., & Neil, A. (2010). Climate change and agriculture: Impacts, adaptation and mitigation. OECD Publishing.
Asante, B. O., Ma, W., Prah, S., & Temoso, O. (2024). Farmers’ adoption of multiple climate-smart agricultural technologies in Ghana: Determinants and impacts on maize yields and net farm income. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, 29(2), 16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11027-024-10114-8
Azumah, F. D., Onzaberigu, N. J., & Adongo, A. A. (2023). Gender, agriculture and sustainable livelihood among rural farmers in northern Ghana. Economic Change and Restructuring, 56(5), 3257-3279. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10644-022-09399-z
Baffour Ata, F., Mensah, S. C., Kuutiero, R. P., Adu, E. O., Amo Mesi, P., Aturu Essel, K., Quarshie, J. L., Fayorsey, M., Asaah, E., & Essua, G. (2025). Perceived costs and benefits of different climate change adaptation practices used by smallholder farmers for agricultural production in the Ahafo Ano South District, Ghana. Regional Environmental Change, 25(1), 29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-024-02351-z
Bangladesh Centre for Advanced Studies. (2021). Climate change and food security in Bangladesh: Sectoral impact assessments. BCAS. https://www.bcas.net
Bryan, E., Ringler, C., Okoba, B., Roncoli, C., Silvestri, S., & Herrero, M. (2013). Adapting agriculture to climate change in Kenya: Household strategies and determinants. Journal of Environmental Management, 114, 26-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.10.036
Chowdhury, J. A. S., Khalek, M. A., & Kamruzzaman, M. (2025). Farmers’ climate change perception, impacts and adaptation strategies in response to drought in the Northwest area of Bangladesh. Climate Services, 38, 100540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cliser.2025.100540
Das, A., Kumar, S., Kasala, K., Nedumaran, S., Paithankar, P., Kumar, A., & Avinandan, V. (2025). Effects of climate change on food security and nutrition in India: A systematic review. Current Research in Environmental Sustainability, 9, 100286. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crsust.2025.100286
Deressa, T. T., Hassan, R. M., Ringler, C., Alemu, T., & Yesuf, M. (2009). Determinants of farmers’ choice of adaptation methods to climate change in the Nile Basin of Ethiopia. Global Environmental Change, 19(2), 248-255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2009.01.002
Deschênes, O., & Greenstone, M. (2007). The economic impacts of climate change: Evidence from agricultural output and random fluctuations in weather. American Economic Review, 97(1), 354–385.
Di Falco, S. (2014). Adaptation to climate change in Sub-Saharan agriculture: Assessing the evidence and rethinking the drivers. European Review of Agricultural Economics, 41(3), 405-430. https://doi.org/10.1093/erae/jbu014
Di Falco, S., Veronesi, M., & Yesuf, M. (2011). Does adaptation to climate change provide food security? A micro-perspective from Ethiopia. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 93(3), 829-846.https://doi.org/10.1093/ajae/aar006
Gwambene, B., Liwenga, E., & Mung’ong’o, C. (2023). Climate change and variability impacts on agricultural production and food security for the smallholder farmers in Rungwe, Tanzania. Environmental Management, 71(1), 3-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-022-01628-5
Islam, M. A. (2012). Agricultural adaptation to climate change: Issues for developing countries. ABC Journals, 30. https://d1wqtxts1xzle7.cloudfront.net/112195440/Agricultural_Adaptation-libre.pdf
Islam, M. S., Hossain, M. Z., & Sikder, M. B. (2019). Farmers’ adaptation strategies to drought and their determinants in Barind Tract, Bangladesh. SAARC Journal of Agriculture, 17(1), 161-174.https://doi.org/10.3329/sja.v17i1.42769
Kamruzzaman, M., Rahman, A. S., Basak, A., Alam, J., & Das, J. (2023). Assessment and adaptation strategies of climate change through the prism of farmers’ perception: A case study. International Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 20(5), 5609-5628. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13762-022-04254-0
Karim, F., Mainuddin, M., Hasan, M., & Kirby, M. (2020). Assessing the potential impacts of climate changes on rainfall and evapotranspiration in the northwest region of Bangladesh. Climate, 8(8), 94. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli8080094
Khan, N. A., Qiao, J., Abid, M., & Gao, Q. (2021). Understanding farm-level cognition of and autonomous adaptation to climate variability and associated factors: Evidence from the rice-growing zone of Pakistan. Land Use Policy, 105, 105427. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.landusepol.2021.105427
Kumar, K. K., & Parikh, J. (2001). Indian agriculture and climate sensitivity. Global Environmental Change, 11(2), 147-154. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-3780(01)00004-8
Mahedi, M., Shaili, S. J., Nurnobi, M., Shihab, A. R., & Sakil, A. R. (2025). Effects of climate change on livelihoods in drought-prone regions of Bangladesh: An in-depth analysis. http://aiipub.com/journals/jarr-250610-10089/
Mamun, M. A. A., Li, J., Cui, A., Chowdhury, R., & Hossain, M. L. (2024). Climate-adaptive strategies for enhancing agricultural resilience in southeastern coastal Bangladesh: Insights from farmers and stakeholders. PLOS ONE, 19(6), e0305609. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0305609
Mardy, T., Uddin, M. N., Sarker, M. A., Roy, D., & Dunn, E. S. (2018). Assessing coping strategies in response to drought: A micro-level study in the northwest region of Bangladesh. Climate, 6(2), 23. https://doi.org/10.3390/cli6020023
Mendelsohn, R., & Dinar, A. (2003). Climate, water, and agriculture. Land Economics, 79(3), 328-341. https://doi.org/10.2307/3147020
Mendelsohn, R., Nordhaus, W. D., & Shaw, D. (1994). The impact of global warming on agriculture: A Ricardian analysis. American Economic Review, 84(4), 753-771. https://www.jstor.org/stable/2118029
Nelson, G. C., Valin, H., Sands, R. D., Havlík, P., Ahammad, H., Deryng, D., ... & Willenbockel, D. (2014). Climate change effects on agriculture: Economic responses to biophysical shocks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 111(9), 3274-3279. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1222465110
Nkonya, E., Mirzabaev, A., & von Braun, J. (Eds.). (2016). Economics of land degradation and improvement: A global assessment for sustainable development. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19168-3
Olutumise, A. I., Ekundayo, B. P., Omonijo, A. G., Akinrinola, O. O., Aturamu, O. A., Ehinmowo, O. O., & Oguntuase, D. T. (2024). Unlocking sustainable agriculture: Climate adaptation, opportunity costs, and net revenue for Nigeria cassava farmers. Discover Sustainability, 5(1), 67. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43621-024-00249-8
Onyekuru, N. A., Marchant, R., Touza, J. M., Ume, C., Chiemela, C., Onyia, C., ... & Eze, C. C. (2024). A-Z of cost-effective adaptation strategies to the impact of climate change among crop farmers in West Africa. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 26(8), 20311-20332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-023-03474-9
Ricart, S., Gandolfi, C., & Castelletti, A. (2023). Climate change awareness, perceived impacts, and adaptation from farmers’ experience and behavior: A triple-loop review. Regional Environmental Change, 23(3), 82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-023-02078-3
Salam, R., Towfiqul Islam, A. R. M., & Islam, S. (2020). Spatiotemporal distribution and prediction of groundwater level linked to ENSO teleconnection indices in the northwestern region of Bangladesh. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 22(5), 4509-4535. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-019-00395-4
Stocker, T. F. (Ed.). (2014). Climate change 2013: The physical science basis: Working Group I contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press.
Uddin, M. A., Kamal, A. M., Shahid, S., & Chung, E. S. (2020). Volatility in rainfall and predictability of droughts in northwest Bangladesh. Sustainability, 12(23), 9810. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12239810
Zeleke, T., Beyene, F., Deressa, T., Yousuf, J., & Kebede, T. (2021). Vulnerability of smallholder farmers to climate change-induced shocks in East Hararghe Zone, Ethiopia. Sustainability, 13(4), 2162. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13042162
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Jamil Akhtar, Md. Atiqul Islam
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
