Non-Carcinogenic and Carcinogenic Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metal Exposure Via Oral and Dermal Pathways in Riparian Communities of Katsina-Ala River, Benue State, Nigeria
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.54536/ajaas.v5i2.8144Keywords:
Carcinogenic Risk, Hazard Quotient, Health Risk Assessment, Heavy Metals, Katsina-Ala RiverAbstract
Heavy metal contamination of freshwater poses a growing public health concern in sub-Saharan Africa, yet quantitative risk assessments for Nigerian riparian communities relying on unregulated river water remain scarce. This study assessed non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic health risks from six heavy metals which are mercury, arsenic, nickel, cadmium, zinc, and lead in water from Katsina-Ala River at Buruku, Benue State, Nigeria, via oral ingestion and dermal exposure in adults and children during the wet (July–September 2025) and dry (January–March 2026) seasons. Risks were calculated using the USEPA (1989) framework, incorporating measured metal concentrations, exposure parameters, reference doses, and cancer slope factors across three sampling stations. Hazard Index (HI) values for oral ingestion exceeded the safety threshold at all sites and in both seasons, with children facing markedly higher risk (HI up to 70.07) than adults (HI up to 55.06) in the wet season, driven mainly by arsenic and cadmium. Dermal exposure posed moderate risk (HI up to 3.47) in children, primarily from cadmium. Carcinogenic risk remained very low overall, though nickel contributed the highest risk in children (ILCR up to 0.052). These findings indicate unacceptable non-carcinogenic risk from river water ingestion in Buruku, particularly for children, highlighting the urgent need for water treatment interventions and community health risk communication.
Downloads
References
Agaku, R. M., Ikyumbur, J. T., Amanyi, M. I. and Onwoke, E. E. (2025). Assessment of heavy metals concentration in ground water in Gboko, Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Physics, 34(1), 122–133. https://doi.org/10.62292/njp.v34i1.2025.390
Alabi, O. A., Fatile, F. M. and Ashamo, M. O. (2025). Heavy metal concentration and DNA damage in tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus Linnaeus, 1758) and catfish (Clarias gariepinus Burchell, 1822) from contaminated Ala River, Akure, Nigeria. Toxicology Research (Cambridge), 14(5), tfaf141. https://doi.org/10.1093/toxres/tfaf141
ATSDR, S. (2012). Toxicological profile for chromium. Agency for toxic substances and disease registry. Public Health Service, US Department of Health and Human Services. http://www. atsdr. cdc. gov/toxprofiles/tp. asp, 24049864.
Balasubramanian, R., He, J., & Wang, L. K. (2017). Control, management, and treatment of metal emissions from motor vehicles. In Handbook of Advanced Industrial and Hazardous Wastes Management (pp. 1113-1128). CRC Press. https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.1201/9781315117423-34/control-management-treatment-metal-emissions-motor-vehicles-rajasekhar-balasubramanian-jun-lawrence-wang
Basu, M. (2023). Impact of mercury and its toxicity on health and environment: a general perspective. In mercury toxicity: Challenges and solutions (pp. 95-139). Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-7719-2_4
Bhattacharya, P., Welch, A. H., Stollenwerk, K. G., McLaughlin, M. J., Bundschuh, J. and Panaullah, G. (2007). Arsenic in the environment: biology and chemistry. Science of the Total Environment, 379(2–3), 109–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.02.037
Bodrud-Doza, M., Islam, A. R. M. T., Ahmed, F., Das, S., Saha, N. and Rahman, M. S. (2016). Characterization of groundwater quality using water evaluation indices, multivariate statistics and geostatistics in central Bangladesh. Water Science, 30: 19–40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsj.2016.05.001
Bortey-Sam, N., Nakayama, S. M. M., Ikenaka, Y., Akoto, O., Baidoo, E., Mizukawa, H. and Ishizuka, M. (2015). Health risk assessment of heavy metals and metalloid in drinking water from communities near gold mines in Tarkwa, Ghana. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 187, 397. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4630-3
Cobbina, S., Duwiejuah, A., Quansah, R., Obiri, S. and Bakobie, N. (2015). Comparative assessment of heavy metals in drinking water sources in two small-scale mining communities in northern Ghana. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12(9), 10620–10634. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120910620
Costa, M. (2019). Review of arsenic toxicity, speciation and polyadenylation of canonical histones. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology, 375, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2019.05.006
Dorne, J. L., Kass, G. E., Bordajandi, L. R., Amzal, B., Bertelsen, U., Castoldi, A. F., Heppner, C., Eskola, M., Fabiansson, S., Ferrari, P. and Scaravelli, E. (2011). Human risk assessment of heavy metals: principles and applications. Metal Ions in Life Science, 8(4), 27–60. https://doi.org/10.1039/9781849732116-00027
Duruibe, J. O., Ogwuegbu, M. O. C. and Egwurugwu, J. N. (2007). Heavy metal pollution and human biotoxic effects. International Journal of Physical Sciences, 2(5), 112–118. http://www.academicjournals.org/IJPS
Eze, V. C., Ndife, C. T. and Muogbo, M. O. (2021). Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risk assessment of heavy metals in Njaba River, Imo State, Nigeria. Brazilian Journal of Analytical Chemistry, 8(33),57–70. https://doi.org/10.30744/brjac.2179-3425.AR-05-2021
Ezechi, E. C., Usiabulu, G. I., Okpoji, A. U., Akpan, N. A., Onuchukwu, E. E., Ovuru, T. I., Okonkwo, P. C., Otuuk, A. G., Obi, J. N., Ahmad, S. I., Oji, N. N. and Osuagwu, E. L. (2026). Hydrogeochemical characterisation, heavy metal bioaccumulation in fish and aquatic species, and public health risk assessment of River Benue, Nigeria. Acta Biology Forum, 5(1), Article 29. https://doi.org/10.51470/ABF.2026.5.1.29
Giri, S. and Singh, A. K. (2015). Human health risk assessment via drinking water pathway due to metal contamination in the groundwater of Subarnarekha River Basin, India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 187, 63. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-015-4265-4
Gržetić, I. and Ghariani, A. R. H. (2008). Potential health risk assessment for soil heavy metal contamination in the central zone of Belgrade, Serbia. Journal of the Serbian Chemical Society, 73, 923–934. http://dx.doi.org/10.2298/JSC0809923G
Jolly, Y. N., Hossain, A., Sattar, A. and Islam, A. (2012). Impact of heavy metals on water and soil environment of the paint industry. Journal of the Bangladesh Chemical Society, 25(2), 159–165. https://doi.org/10.3329/jbcs.v25i2.15068
Karim, Z. (2011). Risk assessment of dissolved trace metals in drinking water of Karachi, Pakistan. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 86, 676–678. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-011-0261-8
Khan, K., Wasserman, G. A., Liu, X., Ahmed, E., Parvez, F., Slavkovich, V., Levy, D., Mey, J., van Geen, A., Garziano, J. H. and Factor-Litvak, P. (2012). Manganese exposure from drinking water and children’s academic achievement. Neurotoxicology, 33(1), 91–97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2011.12.002
Lanphear, B. P., Hornung, R., Khoury, J., Yolton, K., Baghurst, P., Bellinger, D. C., Canfield, R. L., Dietrich, K. N., Bornschein, R., Greene, T. and Roberts, R. (2005). Low-level environmental lead exposure and children’s intellectual function: an international pooled analysis. Environmental Health Perspectives, 113(7), 894–899. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP5685
Li, S. and Zhang, Q. (2010). Risk assessment and seasonal variations of dissolved trace elements and heavy metals in the Upper Han River, China. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 181, 1051–1058. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.05.120
Mazumdar, M., Bellinger, D. C., Gregas, M., Abanilla, K., Bacic, J. and Needleman, H. L. (2011). Low-level environmental lead exposure in childhood and adult intellectual function: a follow-up study. Environmental Health, 10(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1186/1476-069X-10-24
Mohammadi, A. A., Zarei, A., Majidi, S., Ghaderpoury, A., Hashempour, Y., Saghi, M. H., Alinejad, A., Yousefi, M., Hosseingholizadeh, N. and Ghaderpur, M. (2019). Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health risk assessment of heavy metals in drinking water of Khorramabad, Iran. MethodsX, 6, 1642–1651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mex.2019.07.017
Mueller, D. S., Iles, L. C., Pilcher, C. L., Sisson, A. J., Magarey, R., Adams, R., ... & Zebelo, S. (2025). Integrated pest management: state infrastructure status after 50 yr of Federal support (1973 to 2023). Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 16(1), 30. https://doi.org/10.1093/jipm/pmaf016
Muhammad, S., Shah, M. T. and Khan, S. (2010). Arsenic health risk assessment in drinking water and source apportionment using multivariate statistical techniques in Kohistan region, northern Pakistan. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 48(10), 2855–2864. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fct.2010.07.018
Nation, J. R., Hare, M. F., Baker, D. M., Clark, D. E. and Bourgeois, A. E. (1985). Dietary administration of nickel: Effects on behaviour and metallothionein levels. Physiology and Behaviour, 34(3), 349–353. https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9384(85)90194-5
Okafor, C. P., Nduka, J. K., Okafor, P. O., & Offor, C. C. (2025). Behavioural dynamics of water quality parameters and human exposure assessment of trace metals in Agulu Lake Water, South-East Nigeria. Cleaner Water, 100127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clwat.2025.100127
Onoja, E. D., Amanyi, M. I., Onwoke, E. E., Ngbede, I. A. and Lukuman, B. (2022). Assessment of heavy metal loadings of water and sediment of River Enumabia in Orokam, Benue State, Nigeria. Physics Access, 2(1), 75–81. https://doi.org/10.47514/phyaccess.2022.2.1.009
Paschal, D. C., Burt, V., Caudill, S. P., Gunter, E. W., Pirkle, J. L., Sampson, E. J., Miller, D. T. and Jackson, R. J. (2000). Exposure of the US population aged 6 years and older to cadmium: 1988–1994. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 38(3), 377–383. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002449910050
Rafiee, A., Delgado-Saborit, J. M., Sly, P. D., Quémerais, B., Hashemi, F., Akbari, S. and Hoseini, M. (2020). Environmental chronic exposure to metals and effects on attention and executive function in the general population. Science of the Total Environment, 705, 135911. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.135911
Rahman, M. M., Islam, M. A., Bodrud-Doza, M., Muhib, M. I., Zahid, A., Shammi, M., Tareq, S. M. and Kurasaki, M. (2017). Spatio-temporal assessment of groundwater quality and human health risk: a case study in Gopalganj, Bangladesh. Exposure and Health, 10, 167–188. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-017-0253-y
Riaz, R. M. Y., Murtaza, G., Farooqi, Z. U. R., Ali, S., Aziz, H., Mahboob, S., ... & Riaz, U. (2022). Assessment of arsenic contamination in groundwater and associated human health risk. Sustainability, 14(19), 12460. https://doi.org/10.3390/su141912460
Rosen, B. P. and Liu, Z. (2009). Transport pathways for arsenic and selenium: a minireview. Environment International, 35(3), 512–515. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2008.07.023
Seleem, E. M., Mostafa, A., Mokhtar, M. and Salman, S. A. (2021). Risk assessment of heavy metals in drinking water on the human health, Assiut City, Egypt. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 14(6), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-021-06784-2
Sharma, R. K. and Agrawal, M. (2005). Biological effects of heavy metals: an overview. Journal of Environmental Biology, 26(2), 301–313. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Surendran-Udayar-Pillai/post/Are-there-critical-permissible-limits-for-Cadmium-in-rockphosphates-and-Phosphate-fertilizers-applied-to-Agricultural soils/attachment/59d655c379197b80779acd35/AS%3A527223700168704%401502711333965/download/Toxic+limits.pdf
Sombei, D. C., Mecha, C. A., & Chollom, M. N. (2025). A review of low-cost point-of-use water treatment solutions addressing water access and quality in resource-limited settings. Water, 17(12), 1827.
Soom, J. W., Solomon, S. G. and Ayuba, V. O. (2018). Assessment of some physico-chemical parameters of Katsina-Ala River at Buruku, Benue State, Nigeria. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, 6(2), 556–561. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=related:Xl_59PvYaMcJ:scholar.google.com/&scioq=Soom,+J.+W.,+Solomon,+S.+G.,+%26+Ayuba,+V.+O.+(2018).+Assessment+of+some+physico-chemical+parameters+of+River+Katsina-Ala+at+Buruku,+Benue+State,+Nigeria.+International+Journal+of+Fisheries+and+Aquatic+Studies,+6(2),+556-561.&hl=en&as_sdt=0,5
Tangahu, B. V., Sheikh Abdullah, S. R., Basri, H., Idris, M., Anuar, N. and Mukhlisin, M. (2011). A review on heavy metals (As, Pb, and Hg) uptake by plants through phytoremediation. International Journal of Chemical Engineering, 2011, 939161. https://doi.org/10.1155/2011/939161
Ukah, B. U., Egbueri, J. C., Unigwe, C. O. and Ubido, O. E. (2019). Extent of heavy metals pollution and health risk assessment of groundwater in a densely populated industrial area, Lagos, Nigeria. International Journal of Energy and Water Resources, 3, 291–303. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42108-019-00039-3
USEPA (1989). Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund, Volume I, Human Health Evaluation Manual. EPA/540/1-89/002. Office of emergency and remedial response, u.s. environmental protection agency, washington, dc. https://books.google.com/
USEPA (2018). Edition of the Drinking Water Standards and Health Advisories. EPA 822-F-18-001. Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0,5&q=US+EPA+(2018).+Edition+of+the+Drinking+Water+Standards+and+Health+Advisories.+EPA+822-F-18-001.+Office+of+Water,+U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency,+Washington,+DC.
Vershima, A. J., Terkimbi, K. J., Terese, A. and Ibrahim, A. (2015). Heavy metals assessment of abattoir effluent on surface water quality of Katsina-Ala River, Benue State, Nigeria. International Letters of Chemistry, Physics and Astronomy, 49, 90–99. http://www.scipress.com/ILCPA.49.90
Wang, Y., Liu, Y., Cai, H., Zheng, D., & Cheng, Q. (2026). Mechanisms and environmental factors of mercury methylation in wetlands: a systematic review. International Journal of Energy and Water Resources, 10(2), 71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42108-026-00495-8
WHO (2011). Guidelines for Drinking-Water Quality. 4th edn. World Health Organization, Geneva. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/254636/9789241550017-eng.pdf
WHO (2019). Preventing disease through healthy environments: exposure to cadmium: a major public health concern WHO/CED/PHE/EPE/19.4.3. World Health Organization, Geneva.
Wongsasuluk, P., Chotpantarat, S., Siriwong, W. and Robson, M. (2014). Heavy metal contamination and human health risk assessment in drinking water from shallow groundwater wells in an agricultural area, Thailand. Environmental Geochemistry and Health, 36(1), 169–182. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10653-013-9537-8
Wu, B., Zhao, D. Y., Jia, H. Y., Zhang, Y., Zhang, X. X. and Cheng, S. P. (2009). Preliminary risk assessment of trace metal pollution in surface water from Yangtze River in Nanjing Section, China. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 82(4), 405–409. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-008-9497-3
Xiao, M. S., Li, F., Zhang, J. D., Lin, S. Y., Zhuang, Z. Y. and Wu, Z. X. (2017). Investigation and health risk assessment of heavy metals in soils from partial areas of Daye city, China. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 64(1), 012066. https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/64/1/012066
Yahaya, T., Aisha, L. N., Kalgo, A. S., Muhammad, N., Abubakar, M. and Faruk, M. U. (2024). Contamination and risk assessment of heavy metals in water and fish obtained in bunza river in kebbi state, nigeria. Environmental Health Engineering and Management, 11(2), 191–199. https://doi.org/10.34172/EHEM.2024.19
Zheng, S., Wang, Q., Yuan, Y. and Sun, W. (2020). Human health risk assessment of heavy metals in soil and food crops in the pearl river delta urban agglomeration of China. Food Chemistry, 316, 126213. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2020.126213
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Athanasius Aondohemen Aende, Saratu Ibrahim, Tersoo Bajah, Gabriel Ataguba, Orfega. Benjamin Kwaghvihi, Salifu Eyiojotule Daniel
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
