Mono-Method, Multi-Method, or Mixed-Methods Research in Organizational Psychology and Leadership: When is Each Adequate?
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.54536/ajhrpa.v1i2.7663Keywords:
Employee Motivation, Employee Well-Being, Leadership, Organizational Psychology, Research MethodsAbstract
Research in organizational psychology and leadership uses different methods, yet the reasons for selecting one approach over another are often presented as preferences rather than as design fit. This paper aims to clarify when a mono-method design is adequate, when a multi-method design is needed, and when a mixed-methods design is worth the added cost and complexity. This paper applies a qualitative method that combines (1) a brief conceptual framing of quantitative and qualitative paradigms and (2) a structured review of a purposive sample of leadership and organizational psychology studies (between 2011 and 2026), selected to represent quantitative, qualitative, and mixed-methods designs. Quantitative designs provide breadth and comparability but can underplay context, culture, and causal pathways. Qualitative designs provide depth and meaningful reasoning but face limits in scale, time, and transferability. Mixed-methods designs can bridge these gaps through integration, but integration itself becomes a risk caused by dominance of one method, weak linking logic, or high resource needs. The paper offers a simple method-fit logic and a practical set of criteria that can be used early in study planning to align the research question, context, and constraints with an adequate design choice. No single approach is always adequate, but not every problem needs mixed methods. Adequacy depends on the question, the context, the maturity of the construct, and the constraints.
Downloads
References
Al Zefeiti, S. M. B., & Mohamad, N. A. (2015). Methodological considerations in studying transformational leadership and its outcomes. International Journal of Engineering Business Management.
Alegbeleye, I. D. (2020). A mixed methods study of leader-follower dynamics in student project teams: Toward advancing career readiness [Doctoral dissertation, Virginia Tech]. VTechWorks. https://vtechworks.lib.vt.edu/server/api/core/bitstreams/7bb2c9b6-8f56-4d91-9601-9c1b351f0189/content
American Psychological Association. (2022). Workers appreciate and seek mental health support in the workplace.
Angela, G., & Yukl, G. (2004). The future of leadership research: Challenges and opportunities. Sage, 18(3), 359–365.
Antonakis, J., Schriesheim, C. A., Donovan, J. A., Gopalakrishna-Pillai, K., Pellegrini, E. K., & Rossomme, J. L. (2004). Methods for studying leadership. In J. Antonakis, A. T. Cianciolo, & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The nature of leadership (pp. 48–70). SAGE Publications.
Bailey, D. E., & Kurland, N. B. (2022). A review of telework research: Findings, new directions, and lessons for the study of modern work. Wiley, 23(4), 383–400.
Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Euwema, M. C. (2005). Job resources buffer the impact of job demands on burnout. APA PsycNet, 10(2), 170–180.
Bakker, A. B., Hetland, J., Olsen, O. K., & Espevik, R. (2023). Daily transformational leadership: A source of inspiration for follower performance? ScienceDirect, 41(5), 700–708.
Banks, G. C., McCauley, K. D., Gardner, W. L., & Guler, C. E. (2016). A meta-analytic review of authentic and transformational leadership: A test for redundancy. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(4), 634–652.
Bartlett, M. E. (2025). Women leaders’ lived experiences of bravery in leadership. Qualitative Research Journal, 25(3), 244–258.
Benmira, S., & Agboola, M. (2021). Evolution of leadership theory. BMJ Leader, 5(1), 3–5. https://doi.org/10.1136/leader-2020-000296
Biloa, X. S. (2023). The impact of leadership style on employee job performance. Scientific Research, 12(4).
Bowers, B., Cohen, L. W., Elliot, A. E., Grabowski, D. C., Fishman, N. W., Sharkey, S. S., Zimmerman, S., Horn, S. D., & Kemper, P. (2013). Creating and supporting a mixed methods health services research team. Health Services Research, 48(6, Pt. 2), 2157–2180. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.12118
Brimhall, K., & Palinkas, L. (2020). Using mixed methods to uncover inclusive leader behaviors: A promising approach for improving employee and organizational outcomes. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 27(4), 357–375.
Bryman, A., Stephens, M., & Campo, C. à. (1996). The importance of context: Qualitative research and the study of leadership. ScienceDirect, 7(3), 353–370.
Carsten, M., Clapp-Smith, R., Haslam, S. A., Bastardoz, N., Gooty, J., Connelly, S., & Spain, S. (2023). Doing better leadership science via replications and registered reports. The Leadership Quarterly, 34(4), 101712. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2023.101712
Creamer, E. G., & Reeping, D. (2020). Advancing mixed methods in psychological research. ScienceDirect, 3.
Dacier, B. M., et al. (2025). Leadership in action: Tales from the trenches. Journal of Surgical Research.
DDI. (2018). Global leadership forecast 2018. https://www.ddi.com/research/global-leadership-forecast-2018
Deng, C., Gulseren, D., Isola, C., Grocutt, K., & Turner, N. (2023). Transformational leadership effectiveness: An evidence-based primer. Human Resource Development International, 26(5), 627–641. https://doi.org/10.1080/13678868.2022.2135938
Denison, D., Hooijberg, R., & Quinn, R. (1995). Paradox and performance: Toward a theory of behavioral complexity in managerial leadership. Web of Science, 6(5), 524–540.
Dolan, S. L., & Gabel-Shemueli, R. (2015). Organizational psychology. Sage Knowledge.
Eva, N., Robin, M., Sendjaya, S., van Dierendonck, D., & Liden, R. C. (2019). Servant leadership: A systematic review and call for future research. The Leadership Quarterly, 30(1), 111–132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2018.07.004
Feldscher, K. (2025). NIOSH cuts threaten worker health and safety, say experts. Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health. https://hsph.harvard.edu/news/niosh-cuts-threaten-worker-health-and-safety-say-experts/
The correct APA 7th edition reference is:
Gardner, W. L., Lowe, K. B., Moss, T. W., Mahoney, K. T., & Cogliser, C. C. (2010). Scholarly leadership of the study of leadership: A review of The Leadership Quarterly's second decade, 2000–2009. The Leadership Quarterly, 21(6), 922–958. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2010.10.003
GCU. (2023). What is the difference between qualitative vs. quantitative research? https://www.gcu.edu/blog/doctoral-journey/qualitative-vs-quantitative-research-whats-difference
Gill, B. S., Jay Choi, J., & John, K. (2024). Firm leverage and employee pay: The moderating role of CEO leadership style. ScienceDirect, 95.
Halcomb, E., & Hickman, L. (2014). Mixed methods research. RCNI, 29(32), 41–47.
Harvard Business School. (2018). How to become a more effective leader. https://online.hbs.edu/blog/post/characteristics-of-an-effective-leader
Harvard DCE. (2025). Why workplace culture matters. https://professional.dce.harvard.edu/blog/why-workplace-culture-matters/
Harvard. (2014). The human era @ work: Findings from The Energy Project and Harvard Business Review. https://uli.org/wp-content/uploads/ULI-Documents/The-Human-Era-at-Work.pdf
Hashi, A. I. (2024). How leadership can boost productivity. Academia.edu. https://www.academia.edu/122045097/HOW_LEADERSHIP_CAN_BOOST_PRODUCTIVITY
Hensel, P., & Tatarynowicz, A. (2024). Perceived context typicality and beliefs in the generalizability of management research findings. ScienceDirect, 53(9).
Holtom, B., Baruch, Y., Aguinis, H., & Ballinger, G. A. (2022). Survey response rates: Trends and a validity assessment framework. Sage, 75(8), 1560–1584.
Hu, W., Luo, J., Chen, Z., & Zhong, J. (2020). Ambidextrous leaders helping newcomers get on board: Achieving adjustment and proaction through distinct pathways. ScienceDirect, 118, 406–414.
Iannotta, M., Meret, C., & Marchetti, G. (2020). Defining leadership in smart working contexts: A concept synthesis. Frontiers, 11.
Iqbal, R., Shahzad, K., & Donia, M. B. (2023). Environmentally specific transformational leadership and employee green attitude and behavior: An affective events theory perspective. ScienceDirect, 92.
Jensen, M., Potočnik, K., & Chaudhry, S. (2020). A mixed-methods study of CEO transformational leadership and firm performance. ScienceDirect, 38(6), 836–845.
JHU. (2023). Why mixed methods? https://publichealth.jhu.edu/academics/academic-program-finder/training-grants/mixed-methods-research-training-program-for-the-health-sciences/about-the-program/why-mixed-methods
Wang, J., Wang, Z., Alam, M., Murad, M., Gul, F., & Gill, S. A. (2022). The impact of transformational leadership on affective organizational commitment and job performance: The mediating role of employee engagement. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 831060. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.831060
JWU. (2025). Why is employee motivation important in the workplace? https://online.jwu.edu/blog/why-is-employee-motivation-important-in-the-workplace/
Kelly, E. (2025). Listening to frontline workers: MIT Sloan study led by Erin Kelly explores power of employee input to improve workplace conditions. MIT.
Khanal, J., Singh, A., & Jiang, Y. (2026). Unpacking gendered challenges and coping strategies: A qualitative study on female educational leadership in Nepal. ScienceDirect, 114.
Lall, D. (2021). Mixed-methods research: Why, when and how to use. Indian Journal of Continuing Nursing Education, 24.
Liegl, S., & Furtner, M. (2023). Introverted and yet effective? A faceted approach to the relationship between leadership and extraversion. Frontiers, 14.
Magnavita, N., Tripepi, G., & Chiorri, C. (2021). Telecommuting, off-time work, and intrusive leadership in workers’ well-being. MDPI, 18(7).
Major, D. A., Fletcher, T. D., Davis, D. D., & Germano, L. M. (2007). The influence of work-family culture and workplace relationships on work interference with family: A multilevel model. Wiley, 29(7), 881–897.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (2nd ed.). Jossey-Bass.
Miller, S. (2022). SHRM HR benchmarking reports launch as a free member-exclusive benefit. SHRM. https://www.shrm.org/mena/topics-tools/news/benefits-compensation/shrm-hr-benchmarking-reports-launch-free-member-exclusive-benefit
Mind Share Partners. (2021). Workplace mental health is at a catalytic point in time—the stakes have been raised.
NAM. (2017). Valid and reliable survey instruments to measure burnout, well-being, and other work-related dimensions. National Academy of Medicine. https://nam.edu/product/valid-and-reliable-survey-instruments-to-measure-burnout-well-being-and-other-work-related-dimensions/
Neculae, G.-E., & David, S. (2017). LUMEN. https://lumenpublishing.com/proceedings/wp-content/uploads/2017/11/RCE_2017_507-521.pdf
Oranga, J. (2025). Mixed methods research: Merits, applications and challenges. International Journal of Social Science, 5(2), 233–238.
Orkamo, M., Ukko, J., Rantala, T., & Saunila, M. (2025). Leadership behaviours to promote organisational performance in private sector digital transformation: A systematic literature review. ScienceDirect, 5(2).
Ostroff, C., & Harrison, D. A. (1999). Meta-analysis, level of analysis, and best estimates of population correlations: Cautions for interpreting meta-analytic results in organizational behavior. APA, 84(2), 260–270.
PageFreezer. (2022). U.S. Surgeon General releases new framework for mental health & well-being in the workplace. https://us.pagefreezer.com/en-US/wa/browse/0a7f82bb-be6e-448a-ae11-373d22c37842?find-by-timestamp=2023-01-01T06:35:59Z&url=https:%2F%2Fwww.hhs.gov%2Fabout%2Fnews%2F2022%2F10%2F20%2Fus-surgeon-general-releases-new-framework-mental-health-well-being-workpla
Park, T., & Ho, J.-Y. (2025). Mixed methods research in technology and innovation management (TIM): A review of three leading TIM journals and recommendations for moving forward. ScienceDirect, 54(6).
Parry, K., Mumford, M. D., Bower, I., & Watts, L. L. (2014). Qualitative and historiometric methods in leadership research: A review of the first 25 years of The Leadership Quarterly. ScienceDirect.
Prengler, M. (2024). Qualitative analysis could make you a better leader. University of Virginia. https://engagement.virginia.edu/learn/thoughts-from-the-lawn/20241018-Prengler
Prosser, S. L. (2017). A mixed-methods study into the meaning-making leadership behaviors of exemplary chief executive officers [Doctoral dissertation, Brandman University]. Digital Commons. https://digitalcommons.umassglobal.edu/edd_dissertations/143/
Rachmawati, E., Sumartono, E., Rini, A. S., Wiliana, E., & Faqih, M. (2024). The interplay between employee motivation, work-life balance, and job satisfaction in enhancing workplace productivity. Global International Journal of Innovative Research, 2(6), 1383–1396. https://doi.org/10.59613/global.v2i6.211
Ribeiro, M. F., Da Costa, C. G., Ramos, F. R., & Cruz, J. M. T. S. (2024). Exploring research trends and patterns in leadership research: A machine learning, co-word, and network analysis. Management Review Quarterly.
Richardson, S. (2024). When participants embody the answer: A narrative case study of community leadership. American Journal of Qualitative Research, 8(4), 87–108.
SAGE. (2022). Basic characteristics of mixed methods research. https://uk.sagepub.com/sites/default/files/upm-assets/119675_book_item_119675.pdf
Sanfey, J. (2017). The use of case studies to drive bottom-up leadership in community-oriented integrated care and health promotion (COIC). NCBI, 9(1), 7–9.
Savchuk, K. (2019). How much does management matter to productivity? Stanford Graduate School of Business. https://www.gsb.stanford.edu/insights/how-much-does-management-matter-productivity
Scandura, T. A. (2016). Essentials of organizational behavior: An evidence-based approach. SAGE Publications.
Schermuly, C., Algner, M., & Lorenz, T. (2025). Bringing back psychological empowerment in empowerment-oriented leadership: The development of the Psychological Empowerment Leadership Scale (PELS). Frontiers, 16.
Setyawati, N. W., PG, D. S. W., & Rianto, M. R. (2022). Career development, motivation and promotion on employee performance. East Asian Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 1(9), 1957–1970.
Shuck, B., Adelson, J. L., & Reio, T. G., Jr. (2016). The employee engagement scale: Initial evidence for construct validity and implications for theory and practice. Wiley-Blackwell, 56(6), 953–977.
Siebach, K. F., Lovejoy, M., & Kelly, E. L. (2025, August 25). What is a workplace health and well-being committee—and why do you need one? MIT Sloan. https://mitsloan.mit.edu/ideas-made-to-matter/what-a-workplace-health-and-well-being-committee-and-why-do-you-need-one
Simard, A., F.-Dufour, I., Malchelosse-Fournier, R., Perreault, J., & Hudon, C. (2025). Compatibility, integration, and epistemology: Contemporary issues from a mixed methods research experiment. Methods in Psychology, 12, 100187. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metip.2025.100187
Singh, R. (2016). The impact of intrinsic and extrinsic motivators on employee engagement in information organizations. Journal of Education for Library and Information Science, 57.
Smith, J. A., Flowers, P., & Michael, L. (2021). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. Sage.
Sott, M. K., Bender, M. S., Furstenau, L. B., Machado, L. M., Cobo, M. J., & Bragazzi, N. L. (2020). 100 years of scientific evolution of work and organizational psychology: A bibliometric network analysis from 1919 to 2019. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 598676. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.598676
Stanhope, V., Ross, A., Choy-Brown, M., & Jessell, L. (2019). A mixed methods study of organizational readiness for change and leadership during a training initiative within community mental health clinics. Springer, 46, 678–687.
Stentz, J. E., Clark, V. L. P., & Matkin, G. S. (2012). Applying mixed methods to leadership research: A review of current practices. ScienceDirect, 23(6).
Stentz, J. E., Clark, V. L. P., & Matkin, G. S. (2016). Corrigendum to “Applying mixed methods to leadership research: A review of current practices” [Leadersh. Q. 23 (2012) 1173–1183]. ScienceDirect, 27(4), 711.
Tenny, S., Brannan, J. M., & Brannan, G. D. (2022). Qualitative study. NCBI.
Towers Watson. (2012). 2012 global workforce study: Engagement at risk—Driving strong performance in a volatile global environment. Towers Watson.
U.S. EEOC. (2025). Best practices for employers and human resources/EEO professionals. https://www.eeoc.gov/initiatives/e-race/best-practices-employers-and-human-resourceseeo-professionals
U.S. Surgeon General. (2022). The U.S. Surgeon General’s framework for workplace mental health & well-being. https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/workplace-mental-health-well-being.pdf
Wang, B., Liu, Y., Qian, J., & Parker, S. K. (2020). Achieving effective remote working during the COVID-19 pandemic: A work design perspective. IAAP, 70(1), 16–59.
Wang, G., Oh, I.-S., Courtright, S. H., & Colbert, A. E. (2011). Transformational leadership and performance across criteria and levels: A meta-analytic review of 25 years of research. Sage, 36(2).
Winston, A. B., & Rogers, J. G. (2018). Testing intersectionality of race/ethnicity × gender in an SCCT model with science identity. 66(1), 30–44.
Yukl, G. (2012). Effective leadership behavior: What we know and what questions need more attention. Academy of Management Perspectives, 26(4).
Zou, W.-C., Tian, Q., & Liu, J. (2015). Servant leadership, social exchange relationships, and follower’s helping behavior: Positive reciprocity belief matters. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 51, 147–156.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2026 Wael Ghazi Shaaban (Author)
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
